極端民族主義

維基百科，自由的百科全書

極端民族主義（英語：Ultranationalism）是一種意識形態，和傳統民族主義的概念完全不同，強調某個國家或民族在政治、經濟和社會領域的利益與統治地位。通常表現為對自己族群的優越感和極端支持，同時將其他國家，種族，宗教或文化社群視為敵對與次等，並加以歧視，排斥和仇恨，進而引發種族主義和迫害等問題。極端民族主義往往伴隨著侵略性和暴力傾向，可能採取戰爭或種族清洗等極端手段以實現政治目標，它與國家復興的概念共同構成了法西斯主義的關鍵基礎。[1]

加略斯·布加傑斯基（英語：Janusz Bugajski）認為，民族主義在最極端或發展到終極形態時，類似於法西斯主義，其特點是仇外蔑視，支持專制政治並靠近極權主義，強調魅力型領袖，一個組織上無定形的運動型政黨，以及國家之間的「有機統一」。 [2]

羅傑·格里芬（英語：Roger Griffin）指出，極端民族主義本質上是仇外的，並且會通過神化自己歷史上的偉大成就，或者強調對歷史宿敵的仇恨來實現自身的合法化。它有時還會利用庸俗的體質人類學、遺傳學和優生學來對種族優越感和種族前途做合理化解釋，並襯托其他種族的墮落和劣等的觀念。 [3]

極端民族主義政黨[編輯]

自第二次世界大戰以來具有極端民族主義特徵的政黨：

 納粹德國:納粹黨

 義大利社會共和國:法西斯黨

 大日本帝國:大政翼贊會、統制派

 柬埔寨: 柬埔寨共產黨[4]

 中國：中國共產黨[5][6][7][8][9]

 澳洲:一國黨[10]

 奧地利: 奧地利自由黨[11][12][13]

 比利時: 弗拉芒利益[14][15]

 保加利亞: 保加利亞復興黨（英語：Revival (Bulgarian political party)）[16][17][18]、攻擊（英語：Attack (political party))）[19]、IMRO-保加利亞民族運動（英語：IMRO – Bulgarian National Movement）[20][21]、拯救保加利亞民族陣線（英語：National Front for the Salvation of Bulgaria）[20]

 波赫: 塞爾維亞族民主黨[22][23]

 克羅埃西亞: 國土運動（英語：Homeland Movement (Croatia)）[24]、克羅埃西亞民主共同體[25]、克羅埃西亞純權力黨（英語：Croatian Pure Party of Rights）[25]、克羅埃西亞權力黨（英語：Croatian Party of Rights）[25]  賽普勒斯: 埃拉姆語（英語：ELAM (Cyprus)）[26][27]

 捷克: 自由和直接民主[28]

 丹麥: 丹麥人民黨[29][30][31]

 愛沙尼亞: 愛沙尼亞保守人民黨[32][33][34]

 法國: 法國國民聯盟[35]

 芬蘭: 正統芬蘭人黨[36]

 德國: 德國選擇黨[37][38]

 希臘: 希臘方案[39]、人民協會－金色黎明[40][41][42]

 匈牙利: 我們的家園運動（英語：Our Homeland Movement）[43]、尤比克爭取更好的匈牙利運動[44][45][46]

 印度: 濕婆軍[47]、印度人民黨[48][49][50][51]

 印度尼西亞: 專業集團黨[52]

 以色列: 宗教錫安主義者黨[53]、凱煦[54]

 義大利: 義大利兄弟黨[55][56]

 北馬其頓: 馬其頓內部革命組織－馬其頓民族統一民主黨[57]

 緬甸: 聯邦鞏固與發展黨[58][59]

 菲律賓: 新社會運動黨（英語：Kilusang Bagong Lipunan）[60]

 波蘭: 波蘭民族運動黨[61]

 羅馬尼亞: 羅馬尼亞人團結聯盟[62][63]

 俄羅斯: 俄羅斯自由民主黨[64]、全俄政黨「祖國」[65]

 塞爾維亞: 塞爾維亞誓言者黨（英語：Serbian Party Oathkeepers）[66][67]、Dveri（英語：Dveri）[68][69][70]、塞爾維亞復興運動（英語：Serbian Renewal Movement）[71]、 塞爾維亞激進黨[72]、塞爾維亞統一黨（英語：Party of Serbian Unity）[73][74][75]

 南非: 經濟自由鬥士[76][77]、國民黨[78]

 斯洛伐克: 我們的斯洛伐克人民黨（英語：People's Party Our Slovakia）[79]、斯洛伐克民族黨[80][81][82]

 南韓: 韓國全國青年協會（英語：Korean National Youth Association）[83]

 西班牙: 呼聲[84][85]、傳統主義西班牙國家工團主義進攻委員會方陣[86]

 瑞典: 瑞典民主黨[87][88][89]

 瑞士: 瑞士人民黨[90]

 土耳其: 民族主義行動黨[91][92]、土耳其大團結黨（英語：Great Unity Party）[93]

 烏克蘭: 自由黨[94][95][96]、右區[97][98][99]

參見[編輯]

參考[編輯]

  1. ^ Roger Griffin, "Nationalism" in Cyprian Blamires, ed., World Fascism: A Historical Encyclopedia, vol. 2 (Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, 2006), pp. 451–53.
  2. ^ The Politics of National Minority Participation in Post-communist Europe （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）. EastWest Institute. p.65. Section author - Janusz Bugajski. Book edited by Johnathan P.Stein. Published by M.E. Sharpe. Published in New York in 2000. Retrieved via Google Books.
  3. ^ World fascism: a historical encyclopedia. 2006: 452 [2019-08-16]. （原始內容存檔於2020-01-25）. 
  4. ^ Khmer Rouge leaders convicted of genocide in landmark court ruling. South China Morning Post. 2018-11-16 [2023-01-18] （英語）. 
  5. ^ Xi adopting ultra-nationalist agenda, indefinite one-man rule to strengthen grip on China. The Times of India. 2020-09-07 [2020-09-07]. 
  6. ^ In Xi Jinping’s China, Nationalism Takes a Dark Turn. The Wall Street Journal. 2020-10-22 [2020-10-22]. 
  7. ^ Xi Jinping has nurtured an ugly form of Chinese nationalism. Economist. 2022-07-13 [2022-07-13]. 
  8. ^ China’s Rising Ultra-Nationalism Complicates Xi’s Climate Ambitions. Bloomberg.com. Bloomberg News. 2021-11-29 （英語）. 
  9. ^ Krishnankutty, Pia. Chinese Communist Party now derives legitimacy from ultra-nationalism, says Shivshankar Menon. ThePrint. 2021-11-11. 
  10. ^ Stewart, James. Anti‐Muslim hate speech and displacement narratives: Case studies from Sri Lanka and Australia. Australian Journal of Social Issues. 2 November 2019, 54 (4): 418–435. S2CID 211418443. doi:10.1002/ajs4.83. 
  11. ^ South Tyrol – a distorting mirror for Vienna, Rome and liberal London. openDemocracy. 2018-01-14 [2022-03-02] （英語）. 
  12. ^ Even Austria's far right wants to demolish Hitler's birthplace. The Columbus Dispatch. 2016-09-13 [2022-03-02] （美國英語）. 
  13. ^ Jarausch, Konrad Hugo. Out of ashes : a new history of Europe in the twentieth century. Princeton. 2015: 742. ISBN 978-1-4008-8347-9. OCLC 954000237. 
  14. ^ Elman, R. Amy. The European Union, antisemitism, and the politics of denial. Lincoln. 2015: 120. ISBN 978-0-8032-6693-3. OCLC 897814752. 
  15. ^ Fotheringham, Alasdair. In the pandemic, are Europeans more attracted to the far right?. www.aljazeera.com. 2021-02-03 [2022-03-02] （英語）. 
  16. ^ Europe, Central Asia Face Spike In Infections As WHO Warns Of Omicron 'Tidal Wave'. RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty. 2022-01-22 [2022-03-02] （英語）. 
  17. ^ Bulgaria: A heterogeneous coalition in the making (PDF). UniCredit Research. November 2021: 1. 
  18. ^ Weary of promises, Bulgarians protest against COVID curbs, inflation. SWI swissinfo.ch. [2022-03-02] （英語）. 
  19. ^ Katsikas, Stefanos. Negotiating Diplomacy in the New Europe: Foreign Policy in Post-Communist Bulgaria. I.B. Tauris: 64. 2011. 
  20. ^ 20.0 20.1 Ultra-nationalists, populists form 'Bulgarian Patriots' alliance for July elections. The Sofia Globe. 20 May 2021 [17 June 2021]. Ultra-nationalist parties VMRO and the National Front for the Salvation of Bulgaria, along with populists Volya, have agreed to stand together in Bulgaria’s July 11, 2021 parliamentary elections under the name "Bulgarian Patriots", the parties announced on May 20. 
  21. ^ Vacuum at the top threatens to hinder Bulgaria's progress. Financial Times (FT). [17 June 2021]. 
  22. ^ Bosnia Serbs Oust Leader From Her Party. The New York Times. Reuters. 1997-07-21 [2021-06-19]. ISSN 0362-4331 （美國英語）. 
  23. ^ Holbooke to seek removal of Bosnian Serb leader. The Irish Times. [2021-06-19] （英語）. 
  24. ^ Elections in Croatia: 2020 Parliamentary Elections. Arlington, Virginia: International Foundation for Electoral Systems. July 2020: 3. 
  25. ^ 25.0 25.1 25.2 Davies, Peter; Lynch, Derek. The Routledge Companion to Fascism and the Far Right. Routledge. 2002. ISBN 978-1-13460-952-9. 
  26. ^ Journalism and ethics : breakthroughs in research and practice. IGI Global, Information Resources Management Association. Hershey, Pennsylvania. 2019: 585. ISBN 978-1-5225-8360-8. OCLC 1096219393. 
  27. ^ Cyprus and the roadmap for peace : a critical interrogation of the conflict. Michális S. Michael, Yücel Vural. Cheltenham. 2018: 87. ISBN 978-1-78643-049-6. OCLC 1043865663. 
  28. ^ Czech MP who compared Muslim immigrants to "invasive species" will not be stripped of immunity from prosecution. romea.cz. [2022-03-02]. 
  29. ^ Freedom in the world : the annual survey of political rights & civil liberties, 2000-2001. Adrian Karatnycky, Freedom House Survey Team. Piscataway, N.J.: Transaction Pub. 2001: 171. ISBN 0-7658-0101-9. OCLC 48233321. 
  30. ^ Lee, Martin A. The beast reawakens. New York. 2013: 46. ISBN 978-1-135-28124-3. OCLC 858861623. 
  31. ^ Racial and ethnic economic inequality : an international perspective. Samuel L. Myers, Bruce P. Corrie. New York: Lang. 2006: 205. ISBN 0-8204-5656-X. OCLC 52312447. 
  32. ^ In Liberal Estonia, Right-Wing Populists Are Making Their Mark. Freedom House. [2021-09-10] （英語）. 
  33. ^ "The East-Europeanization of Estonian Politics" | Baltic Rim Economies. sites.utu.fi. [2021-09-10]. 
  34. ^ Europe's far right has stalled. Australian Financial Review. 2019-12-31 [2021-09-10] （英語）. 
  35. ^ Erlanger, Steven; de Freytas-Tamura, Kimiko. E.U. Faces Its Next Big Test as France's Election Looms. New York Times. 17 December 2016 [28 February 2017]. 
  36. ^ Morden, Tony. Equality, diversity and opportunity management : costs, strategies and leadership. Farnham, Surrey: Ashgate Publishing Limited. 2013. ISBN 978-1-4094-3279-1. OCLC 847526846. 
  37. ^ The 1619 Project and the far-right fear of history. The Washington Post. 20 August 2019. A leader of Germany's ultranationalist AfD party in 2017 bemoaned how the country's focus on atoning ... 
  38. ^ Berlin, Oliver Moody. Frankenstein pact puts AfD in coalition. The Times. 23 July 2019. A married couple have run into trouble for forging the first local pact between Angela Merkel’s party and the ultranationalist Alternative for Germany (AfD) in defiance of the chancellor. 
  39. ^ Greek elections: landslide victory for centre-right New Democracy party. The Guardian. 7 July 2019. Smaller parties, such as the ultra-nationalist Greek Solution and leftist MeRA25, headed by Yanis Varoufakis, the former finance minister, were targeting younger Greeks. 
  40. ^ Tsatsanis, Emmanouil, Hellenism under siege: the national-populist logic of antiglobalization rhetoric in Greece, Journal of Political Ideologies, 2011, 16 (1): 11–31, S2CID 143633586, doi:10.1080/13569317.2011.540939, ...and far right-wing newspapers such as Alpha Ena, Eleytheros Kosmos, Eleytheri Ora and Stohos (the mouthpiece of ultra-nationalist group Chrysi Avgi). 
  41. ^ Ivarsflaten, Elisabeth, Reputational Shields: Why Most Anti-Immigrant Parties Failed in Western Europe, 1980–2005 (PDF), Nuffield College, University of Oxford: 15, 2006 
  42. ^ On the Road with Golden Dawn, Greece’s Ultra-Nationalist Party. Time. Published 31 October 2012. Retrieved 11 March 2017.
  43. ^ Horthy Commemoration Revives Political Debate over His Regentship. 18 November 2019. 
  44. ^ Kyriazi, Anna. Ultranationalist discourses of exclusion: a comparison between the Hungarian Jobbik and the Greek Golden Dawn. University of Milan. April 2016. 
  45. ^ Migrants finding little sympathy in Hungary for their plight. AP News. 9 September 2015. 
  46. ^ {{cite news|url=https://www.npr.org/2014/05/24/315445164/ultra-nationalist-party-surges-in-hungary%7Ctitle=Ultra-Nationalist Party Surges In Hungary|newspaper=NPR.org|date=24 May 2014|publisher=National Public Radio}}
  47. ^ Magnier, Mark. In India, battle continues over Hindu temple's riches - latimes. Los Angeles Times. 8 March 2012 [2015-12-02]. 
  48. ^ Outlook Web Bureau. BJP Promoting Hindu Supremacy And Ultra-Nationalism At The Expense Of Fundamental Rights For All Indians, Says Human Rights Watch Report. Outlook. 2018-01-22 [2023-02-10]. 
  49. ^ Indrajit Roy. Blog: India - One year after Narendra Modi’s re-election, the country’s democracy is developing fascistic undertones.. University of York York. 2020-06-02 [2023-02-10]. 
  50. ^ Syed Qamar Afzal Rizvi. Modi’s ultra-nationalism vs India’s liberal order of change?. Daily Times. 2020-08-06 [2023-02-10]. 
  51. ^ Radhika Ramaseshan. Is a post-Hindutva, ultra-nationalism milieu, forcing even 'secular' parties towards polarisation?. TOI. 2022-04-03 [2023-02-10]. 
  52. ^ Mietzner, Marcus. Comparing Indonesia's Party Systems of the 1950s and the Post-Suharto Era: From Centrifugal to Centripetal Inter-Party Competition. Journal of Southeast Asian Studies. 2008, 39 (3): 431–453. JSTOR 27751535. S2CID 143374343. doi:10.1017/S0022463408000337. 
  53. ^ Religious Zionism, Otzma Yehudit parties to run together, Arutz7
  54. ^ Weinblum, Sharon. Security and Defensive Democracy in Israel: A Critical Approach to Political Discourse. Routledge. 2015: 10. ISBN 978-1-317-58450-6. 
  55. ^ Political turmoil in Italy as far-right reaches for the reins. Christian Science Monitor. 2019-08-21 [2022-03-02]. ISSN 0882-7729. 
  56. ^ In Italy, sighs of relief as Mattarella stays put. EUobserver. 2022-02-02 [2022-03-02] （英語）. 
  57. ^ Piacentini A., Make Macedonia Great Again! The New Face of Skopje and the Macedonians』 identity dilemma edited by Evinç Doğan in Reinventing Eastern Europe: Imaginaries, Identities and Transformations; Place and space series; Transnational Press London, 2019; ISBN 1910781878, p. 87.
  58. ^ Khin Moh Moh Lwin and Myo Set Pai. Far-right Buddhist nationalist candidates among biggest losers in 2020 election. Myanmar Now. 20 November 2020 [23 November 2020]. 
  59. ^ Internal Crisis Group. Buddhism and State Power in Myanmar. 5 September 2017. 
  60. ^ Villegas, Bernardo M. The Philippines in 1986: Democratic Reconstruction in the Post-Marcos Era. Asian Survey. 1958-02-01, 27 (2): 194–205. ISSN 0004-4687. JSTOR 2644614. doi:10.2307/2644614 （英語）. Finally, at the extreme right is the reorganized Kilusang Bagong Lipunan (KBL) under Nicanor Yniguez, which remains loyal to Marcos. 
  61. ^ Polish Interior Minister Issues Last-Minute Ban on Neo-Fascist Show of Force Outside Israeli Embassy in Warsaw. The Algemeiner. 31 January 2018. 
  62. ^ Hopkins, Valerie. Far-right party changes political landscape in Romania需要付費訂閱. Financial Times. 14 December 2020. （原始內容存檔於2022-12-10）. 
  63. ^ Record low turnout brings extremist party into Romania's Parliament. transylvanianow.com. Transylvania Now. 7 December 2020. 
  64. ^ Ultranationalists Move to Slap Fines on Use of Foreign Words. 21 February 2013. 
  65. ^ Van Herpen, Marcel H. Putin's Propaganda Machine: Soft Power and Russian Foreign Policy. Rowman & Littlefield. 2015: 34. 
  66. ^ Serbian Ultranationalists Making Mark Despite Failure At The Ballot Box. RFE/RL. March 12, 2018. 
  67. ^ Digitalni šovinizam na Fejsbuku: Dani srpskih nacionalističkih mrmota. voice.org.rs. VOICE. 15 March 2020 （Serbian）. 
  68. ^ Mladic on his way to UN war crimes tribunal. France 24. 2011-05-31 [2021-06-19] （英語）. 
  69. ^ Serbia's pro-EU populists win vote, initial projections show. AP NEWS. [2021-06-19]. 
  70. ^ Armakolas, Ioannis; Maksimović, Maja. The Beginning of the End for the Kosovo Problem? The Agreement on Normalisation of Relations between Belgrade and Pristina and its Aftermath (PDF). ETH Zürich. May 2013 [19 June 2021]. 
  71. ^ Stojarová, Věra; Emerson, Peter. Political parties in Serbia (PDF). bochsler.eu. Bochsler, Center for Comparative and International Studies, University of Zurich. 
  72. ^ Ford, Peter. Serbian Radical Party surge may complicate reform. Christian Science Monitor. 2018 [17 December 2018]. 
  73. ^ Warlord's party hopeful of winning seats. edition.cnn.com. CNN. 24 December 2020. 
  74. ^ Željko Ražnatović. britannica.com. Britannica. 
  75. ^ Wiesinger, Barbara. The Continuing Presence of the Extreme Right in Post-Milošević Serbia. Balkanologie. December 2008, 11 (1–2). doi:10.4000/balkanologie.1363 可免費查閱. 
  76. ^ The Turn of the Fascist 網際網路檔案館的存檔，存檔日期12 April 2015., Jane Duncan, SACSIS (2011).
  77. ^ Imraan Baccus,"Is fascism rearing its ugly head in SA?" 網際網路檔案館的存檔，存檔日期6 October 2013., City Press (2013).
  78. ^ Krabill, Ron. Starring Mandela and Cosby: Media and the End(s) of Apartheid有限度免費查閱，超限則需付費訂閱. University of Chicago Press. 2010: 51. 
  79. ^ Not Even a Prosperous Slovakia Is Immune to Doubts About the E.U.. New York Times. 17 December 2016. 
  80. ^ Jeffries, Ian. Eastern Europe at the turn of the twenty-first century有限度免費查閱，超限則需付費訂閱. Routledge. 2002: 352. ISBN 9780415236713. Slovak National Party: led by Jan Slota. Extreme nationalist 
  81. ^ P. Ramet, Sabrina. Whose democracy?: nationalism, religion, and the doctrine of collective rights in post-1989 Eastern Europe. Rowman & Littlefield. 1997: 128. ISBN 9780847683246. ...Meciar established his 1994 coalition government with the extreme-nacionalist Slovak National Party (SNS), led by Ján Slota, mayor of Zilina... 
  82. ^ International Herald Tribune's article about Hungarian-Slovak relations. International Herald Tribune. 29 March 2009 [10 January 2011]. 
  83. ^ 이범석 [Lee Bum Suk]. Naver Knowledge Encyclopedia. [2019-05-17] （韓語）. 
  84. ^ Acha, Beatriz. No, no es un partido (neo)fascista. Agenda Pública. 6 January 2019 [1 May 2019]. （原始內容存檔於11 July 2019）. 
  85. ^ Antón-Mellón, Joan. Vox. Del nacional-catolicismo al ultranacionalismo neoliberal. Agenda Pública. 29 April 2019. 
  86. ^ The Extreme Right in Spain - Surviving in the Shadow of Franco (PDF). core.ac.uk. Hedda Samdahl Weltz. 2014. 
  87. ^ Hällhag, Roger. New Sweden: Crushing or Confirming a Social Democratic Model?. Bonn: Friedrich Ebert Foundation. April 2007: 6. 
  88. ^ Relativism and post-truth in contemporary society : possibilities and challenges. Mikael Stenmark, Steve Fuller, Ulf Zackariasson. Cham, Switzerland. 2018: 169. ISBN 978-3-319-96559-8. OCLC 1052796925. 
  89. ^ Gardell, Mattias. Crusader Dreams: Oslo 22/7, Islamophobia, and the Quest for a Monocultural Europe. Terrorism and Political Violence. 2014, 26 (1): 130. ISSN 0954-6553. S2CID 144489939. doi:10.1080/09546553.2014.849930 （英語）. 
  90. ^ Estrin, Barbara L. Shakespeare and Contemporary Fiction: Theorizing Foundling and Lyric Plots. 2012: 17. ISBN 978-1611493702. 
  91. ^ Arman, Murat Necip. The Sources Of Banality In Transforming Turkish Nationalism. CEU Political Science Journal. 2007, (2): 133–151. 
  92. ^ Eissenstat, Howard. Anatolianism: The History of a Failed Metaphor of Turkish Nationalism. Middle East Studies Association Conference. Washington, D.C. November 2002. 
  93. ^ Fatma Muge Gocek. Denial of Violence: Ottoman Past, Turkish Present, and Collective Violence against the Armenians, 1789-2009 再印版. Oxford University. 2016-08-01 [2023-02-09]. ISBN 978-0190624583. 
  94. ^ Svoboda: The rise of Ukraine's ultra-nationalists. BBC. 25 December 2012 [1 March 2015]. 
  95. ^ Black, J. L.; Johns, Michael; Theriault, Alanda. The new world disorder: challenges and threats in an uncertain world. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield. 2019: 14. ISBN 9781498576376. 
  96. ^ Hahn, Gordon M. Ukraine over the edge: Russia, the West and the "new Cold War". Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland. 2018: 191. ISBN 9781476628752. 
  97. ^ Profile: Ukraine's ultra-nationalist Right Sector. BBC. 28 April 2014 [1 March 2015]. 
  98. ^ Nordsieck, Wolfram. Ukraine. Parties and Elections in Europe. 2014 [6 September 2018]. （原始內容存檔於12 June 2018）. 
  99. ^ Far-Right Leader To Advise Ukraine Army. RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty. [2022-05-22] （英語）. 
發展
理論分歧
種類
組織
相關概念
取自「https://zh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=极端民族主义&oldid=82911610」